Decline of the Roman Republic Part VIII: Rise of Julius Caesar

Mar 6, 2012
Keith Sellick

Julius Caesar. Surviving bust from his lifetime - Tataryn77. Wikipedia commons

Julius Caesar first ruled Rome as a triumvirate with Pompey and Crassus. But his ambition drove him on to become the sole dictator of the state

The Senate had overcome the conspiracy of Catiline and believed its strength was now restored.

But Cato and other senators refused any concessions to Pompey, Crassus and Caesar, who were three of the most powerful and richest men in Italy.

Pompey, Crassus and Caesar formed an all-powerful alliance, called the Triumvirate, in 60BC.

The Triumvirate "backed by armed force, by the urban populace and by many of the equites [the lesser nobility], imposed their will on the state and destroyed the power of the Senate." (p96, From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome 133BC to 68AD, H H Scullard).

Their rule was strengthened by control of the streets of Rome by the tribune Publius Clodius.

The strange case of Publius Clodius

Two years before the Triumvirate was formed, Caesar was caught up in a scandalous trial. A young senator Publius Clodius was discovered disguised at a women-only religious ceremony in Caesar's house. He was suspected of having an affair with Caesar's second wife Pompeia, (who Caesar had married after the death of his first wife in 67BC).

Clodius was put on trial and other charges were also brought about his sexual misconduct. Cicero aided the prosecution by demolishing Clodius's alibi. But Caesar defended Clodius, and Crassus was able to bribe the jury with the result that Clodius was cleared of the charges despite overwhelming evidence.

Pompeia was found innocent of all charges through more honest means but Caesar still divorced her saying his "wife must be above suspicion".

The trial brought Crassus, Caesar and Clodius together. Clodius become tribune of the plebians in 61BC. He enacted laws strengthening the plebian assembly, preventing illegal arrests by the senate and increasing government scrutiny. He also introduced free grain for the poor of the city.

The Triumvirate

Caesar won a particularly dirty election to become consul in 59BC and, with Clodius as tribune, forced through with bribes and threats a land reform bill to benefit army veterans of Pompey. Ceasar and Clodius were also able to lower the price of tax farming contracts in the East, so benefiting Crassus and his supporters.

Clodius controlled the streets of Rome with his gangs and intimidated the Senate. He banished Cicero for two years, because of animosity over 62BC trial and Cicero's overstepping of his powers in executing Catiline's conspirators. Cato was sent off to Cyprus with an official post. The optimates had lost the two most respected and robust opponents of the Triumvirate.

The Triumvirate was now the most powerful force in the Roman state. And Caesar was now in a position to win an important command to enrich himself.

Caesar in Gaul

Caesar, deeply in debt because of huge amounts of spending on gaining influence, secured the command of an army in Gaul.

Between 58BC and 52BC, he conquered Gaul (modern day France), fought off German tribes and invaded Britain twice. In 53BC, he put down the revolt of Gallic leader Vercingetorix at Alesia, which cemented Rome's dominance of Gaul.

His victories enriched him with booty and slaves. He also had triumphant processions in Rome, despite the opposition of some Optimates, built public buildings and rewarded his supporters with gifts and huge public feasts, all of which made him more popular with the masses.

However, Suetonius in his Lives of the Twelve Caesars paints a different picture. He says that Caesar fomented disputes with tribes including Rome's allies in order to conquer them. The wars were, Seutonius claims, a product of Caesar's ambition rather than any need to defend Rome.

So bad was Caesar's conduct that the Senate investigated his behaviour and some senators went as far as "to recommend that Caesar should be handed over to the enemy," (page 12, Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Suetonius).

The coalition against Caesar 49BC

The Triumvirate had defeated all opposition. But Crassus was killed fighting the Parthians in Syria in 53BC. Pompey's young wife, who was Caesar's daughter, died the same year in childbirth, he remarried Crassus's widow breaking the personal tie.

The optimates hit back against Caesar's supporters and Clodius was killed in 52BC in a gang fight.

With Clodius gone, a standoff occurred with the Senate trying to reassert control and strip Caesar of his command to leave him defenseless.

Cato, now back in Rome, was the driving force behind the senatorial coalition against Caesar. He had spent several years admonishing Pompey for his support for Caesar, telling him that he was "carrying the burden of Caesar which would eventually tire and overcome him" (Plutarch, The Life of Cato the Younger)

Eventually, Cato, Cicero (returned from exile) and the Optimates were successful in winning over Pompey to their cause. There was now a broad bloc against Caesar. This achievement “arose from the brain and will of Marcus Cato”. (p45 The Roman Revolution, Ronald Syme).

The coalition included the Scipiones, Metelli and the Cornelli Lentulia, powerful Patrician clans who had long service for the state and well respected, along with the plebian family of the Claudii Marcelli (related to the Patrician Claudii family). In addition were Cato’s faction built through family ties and marriage, and also Cicero.

In all 10 former consuls and Pompey stood together representing “the oligarchy of Sulla manifest and menacing in its lust and bid for power”. (p45 The Roman Revolution)

Which was ironic given that both Cato and Cicero hated Sulla and had prosecuted his supporters.

In 49BC, Cato won a vote in the Senate to end Caesar’s command in Gaul, he would have to return to Rome as a citizen open to prosecution. Pompey was handed the power to raise and army in Italy.

Crossing the Rubicon

Caesar replied by taking the XIII legion across the River Rubicon, the border of northern Italy, and precipitating a civil war (legally he should have resigned his commission and disbanded his army). Caesar's legion of battle-hardened veterans soldiers marched on Rome and scattered Pompey and his far more numerous supporters.

Pompey fled to Greece where he took command of an army. Caesar followed and the two clashed at the Battle of Pharsalus where Caesar's smaller but more experienced army was victorious. Pompey fled to Egypt to find asylum with the King but was murdered by some of his officers.

Caesar was now the most powerful figure in the Roman Empire. He cleaned up the last of the rebels and went back to Rome in 45BC. Cato died by his own hand in North Africa after being defeated by Caesar, who afterwards penned a book, the Anti-Cato, which described his enemy as a drunkard, miser and blundering reactionary (Cicero, a turbulent Life p229-30). Pompey's son was killed in Spain but Cicero was able to slip back into Rome and made peace with Caesar.

Caesar's constitution

In Rome, Caesar enacted a new constitution to bring order to the city and Empire and root out corruption. Governors and many posts were now time-limited to prevent the abuse of power. He reformed the courts and guilds.

He became joint consul, then sole consul in 45BC. He became dictator for 10 years and Prefect of the Morals, which allowed him to censor all others. He appointed hundreds of new senators from his allies in the provinces to bring the Senate to a strength of 900.

Finally, he declared himself dictator for life and brought in a new law allowing him to appoint officers in the army and the government.

He had long recognised that the choatic and unstable Senate and Roman Republican constitution was unfit to rule a huge empire. Instead power needed to be concetrated in the hands of an executive and civil service.

But his realisation was shared by the Republicans in the senate, who cherished their history, power and prestige and feared the return of monarchy.

On the 15 March in 44BC, the Ides of March, Caesar was stabbed to death in the Senate. His assassins feared that Caesar was going to pronounce himself king. But his powers, while dressed in Republican garb, were already those of a king.

The murder of Caesar did not save the Roman constitution. Instead it ushered in two more civil wars that ended the Republic.